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diff --git a/conclusion.tex b/conclusion.tex index 4b981fb..92c44b1 100644 --- a/conclusion.tex +++ b/conclusion.tex @@ -4,4 +4,49 @@ \vspace*{-16pt}% Insert needed vertical retraction \chapter[CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND FUTURE WORK]{CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND FUTURE WORK} \endgroup - +\section{Configuration One} +The experimental characterization of the +electromechanical performance of the partial-hybrid turbo-electric +aircraft ground test vehicle was accomplished. The peak power +generated was about 4-kW, which was used to power the right-wing +motor along with 13-kW of power from the battery. The total engine +output was around 150-kW. The electrical power generated was +significantly more than the 0.72-kW generated by the original +engine alternator. Based on the performance metrics of the engine, +the maximum power output and the speed of the turboprop were kept +well within the nominal range.\\ +The interdependent time response of the combined machine was +interesting. The turbine engine was operating at 150-kW of shaft +power whenever the generator was fully engaged at 4-kW. The +battery met the required load, but the turboprop was slowed down by +the generator and took almost 5-s to return to the nominal RPM +value. The slow response of the turbine to such a minor adjustment in +power was unexpected. The power split between the generator and +the battery during the transition from low to medium throttle was +also of particular interest. The current flow from the generator +changed only slightly with the difference being made up by the +battery. The reason for the slight change was an impact on +the rotational speed of the generator and its effect on output voltage. +The slowdown from the near-constant turboprop shaft speed led to a +3-V decrease in the output of the generator. Because the output +voltage of the generator was so close to the battery voltage, this +decrease in voltage significantly impacted the current output and +prevented it from meeting the electrical system demand. Once the +turboprop rotational speed returned to normal, the generator was +able to produce more current.\\ +Additionally, a failure mode caused by a short in the left ESC was +identified. The bus voltage dropped considerably from 106-V to +somewhere near 40-V. The current output of the ESC reached at +least 550-A and drew a minimum of 46-kW of power from the +battery. The power system was able to temporarily accommodate the +failure, but it highlighted that the power system needed to be able to +accommodate a power failure that pulled all available electrical +power in the system.\\ +Finally, a qualitative analysis of the acoustic signature of the +aircraft testbed showed there was little difference between the +OASPL of the aircraft with and without the electric propeller +operating. This demonstrates that the dominant noise source is likely +the turboprop engine or acoustic interactions related to the turboprop +engine. A cowling with acoustic dampening material could +potentially change this outcome, especially since the engine in this +configuration is not enclosed. diff --git a/dissertation_main.aux b/dissertation_main.aux deleted file mode 100644 index 4d936bd..0000000 --- a/dissertation_main.aux +++ /dev/null @@ -1,67 +0,0 @@ -\relax -\@writefile{toc}{\renewcommand {\cftchapleader } {\cftdotfill {4.5}}} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {I}INTRODUCTION}{1}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{lot}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\newlabel{chap:intro}{{I}{1}{}{}{}} -\citation{EoPGTR2} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {II}BACKGROUND}{2}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{lot}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.1}Turbine Engines}{2}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {1}{\ignorespaces Ideal Turbojet with station numbering}}{2}{}\protected@file@percent } -\newlabel{EoPturbojet}{{1}{2}{}{}{}} -\citation{EoPturbojet} -\citation{EoPGTR2} -\citation{EoPGTR2} -\citation{EoPGTR2} -\citation{nasa_turbojet} -\citation{faa_engines} -\@writefile{lof}{\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {2}{\ignorespaces Turbofan Engine Cross Section}}{5}{}\protected@file@percent } -\newlabel{faaturbofan}{{2}{5}{}{}{}} -\citation{nasa_prop_overview} -\citation{nasa_prop_overview} -\@writefile{lof}{\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {3}{\ignorespaces PBS TP100 Cutaway}}{6}{}\protected@file@percent } -\newlabel{tp100cutaway}{{3}{6}{}{}{}} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.2}Generator Theory}{6}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.3}Battery Theory}{6}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.4}Turboelectric Theory}{6}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {4}{\ignorespaces Turboelectric Architectures}}{7}{}\protected@file@percent } -\newlabel{turboarch}{{4}{7}{}{}{}} -\@writefile{lof}{\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {5}{\ignorespaces Parallel Turboelectric Design}}{7}{}\protected@file@percent } -\newlabel{turboseriesparallel}{{5}{7}{}{}{}} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.5}Previous Work}{7}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {III}METHODOLOGY}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{lot}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.1}General Aircraft System}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.2}Configuration One}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.2.1}Data Acquisition}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.2.2}Experimental Procedure}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.3}Configuration Two}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.3.1}Data Acquisition}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.3.2}Experimental Procedure}{8}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {IV}RESULTS}{9}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{lot}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.1}Configuration One}{9}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.2}Configuration Two}{9}{}\protected@file@percent } -\citation{*} -\bibstyle{osustyle.bst} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {V}CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND FUTURE WORK}{10}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{lof}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\@writefile{lot}{\addvspace {10\p@ }} -\bibdata{references.bib} -\bibcite{tp100technical}{1} -\bibcite{doi:10.2514/6.2018-4984}{2} -\bibcite{TurboelectricAS}{3} -\bibcite{faa_engines}{4} -\bibcite{nasa_prop_overview}{5} -\bibcite{CessnaASME}{6} -\bibcite{EoPGTR2}{7} -\bibcite{MelvinThesis}{8} -\bibcite{nasa_turbojet}{9} -\bibcite{hybrid_trends}{10} -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{REFERENCES}{11}{}\protected@file@percent } -\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {chapter}{APPENDICES}{13}{}\protected@file@percent } -\gdef \@abspage@last{21} diff --git a/dissertation_main.bbl b/dissertation_main.bbl deleted file mode 100644 index 8d78e22..0000000 --- a/dissertation_main.bbl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -\providecommand{\bysame}{\leavevmode\hbox to3em{\hrulefill}\thinspace} -\providecommand{\MR}{\relax\ifhmode\unskip\space\fi MR } -% \MRhref is called by the amsart/book/proc definition of \MR. -\providecommand{\MRhref}[2]{% - \href{http://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=#1}{#2} -} -\providecommand{\href}[2]{#2} -\begin{thebibliography}{10} -\interlinepenalty=10000 - -\bibitem{tp100technical} -PBS Aerospace, \emph{Basic technical information turboprop engine tp100}, April 2015. - -\bibitem{doi:10.2514/6.2018-4984} -Cheryl~L. Bowman, Ty~V. Marien, and James~L. Felder, \emph{Turbo- and hybrid-electrified aircraft propulsion for commercial transport}, 2018. - -\bibitem{TurboelectricAS} -Johnathan Burgess, Timothy Runnels, Joshua Johnsen, Joshua Drake, and Kurt Rouser, \emph{Experimental comparison of direct and active throttle control of a 7 kw turboelectric power system for unmanned aircraft}, Applied Sciences \textbf{11} (2021), no.~22. - -\bibitem{faa_engines} -FAA, \emph{Aircraft engines}, Federal Aviation Administration, 2024. - -\bibitem{nasa_prop_overview} -Ralph Jansen, \emph{Overview of nasa electrified aircraft propulsion activities}, NASA Glenn Research Center, 2017. - -\bibitem{CessnaASME} -Joshua Johnsen, Joshua Melvin, Joshua Drake, Muwanika Jdiobe, and Kurt Rouser, \emph{Experimental evaluation of an electric powertrain designed for a 180-kw turboelectric aircraft ground test rig}, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power \textbf{146} (2024). - -\bibitem{EoPGTR2} -Jack Mattingly and Hans von Obain, \emph{Elements of propulsion: Gas turbines and rockets 2nd edition}, AIAA, 2016. - -\bibitem{MelvinThesis} -Joshua Melvin, \emph{Integration and evaluation of a 180-kw turboprop engine with a turboelectric ground test rig}, Master's thesis, OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY, May 2021. - -\bibitem{nasa_turbojet} -NASA, \emph{Turbojet engine}, NASA Glenn Research Center, 2017. - -\bibitem{hybrid_trends} -Manuel Rendón, Carlos Sánchez, Josselyn Gallo~Muñoz, and Alexandre Anzai, \emph{Aircraft hybrid-electric propulsion: Development trends, challenges and opportunities (https://rdcu.be/cmg4u)}, Sba Controle \& Automação Sociedade Brasileira de Automatica (2021). - -\end{thebibliography} diff --git a/dissertation_main.blg b/dissertation_main.blg deleted file mode 100644 index 1e6bceb..0000000 --- a/dissertation_main.blg +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ -This is BibTeX, Version 0.99d (TeX Live 2024) -Capacity: max_strings=200000, hash_size=200000, hash_prime=170003 -The top-level auxiliary file: dissertation_main.aux 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This program outputs +various metrics of the engine and can be used to record data visually. +Unfortunately, the controller area network bus protocol used by the +engine is proprietary and the manufacturer did not provide software +to record data directly. Thus, all engine data was recorded from +video capture of real-time graphical read-out, and figures were +created during postprocessing. +The main data acquisition system consists of three Arduino +Megas. Two of the microcontrollers were utilized to record most of +the sensor inputs. The third Arduino only measures voltage and was +located inside the aircraft with the pilot. The two main boards utilize +the printed circuit boards detailed in Fig. 9. The board was designed +to accommodate the numerous sensors present on the aircraft, +though this paper will focus on the power data because most of the +recorded data was thermistor data and not particularly interesting. +All the specifics of the relevant DAQ components are listed in +Table 2. +The locations of the hall effect current sensors can be seen in the +main electrical system diagram shown in Fig. 5. The aircraft testbed +consists of 2 LEM DHAB S-133 current sensors that can read up to +750-A and are accurate to within 2% of the actual value. They are +located after the generator and before the crowbar circuit. A third +DHAB S-124 current sensor was also used before the battery, and it +can read up to 500-A accurately. This sensor is slightly more +accurate than the S-133 because it has a smaller current rating. The +amount of power expended from the battery was not expected to +exceed 300-A. These three sensors allow for current in the system to +be fully accounted for and monitored. The current sensors are +bidirectional and so can determine the direction electrical current is +flowing. All power production (battery and generator) and power +utilization (battery, wings, and crowbar) can be accurately measured +in real-time. +A voltage divider was utilized to reduce the 120-V to a 5-V range. +This scaled range was then read by the analog port on an Arduino. +For the voltage sensor, a separate dedicated Arduino was used to +allow for an increased response rate and ease of electrical isolation. \subsection{Experimental Procedure} + Before hybrid-power testing +commenced, the system went through a series of preliminary tests to +reduce the technical risk of a full hybrid-power system test. These +tests were important for informing the test matrix design. First, the +turboprop engine was tested to ensure the engine was operating +nominally, before adding the generator [18]. Next, a check run was +performed using only the batteries, ensuring the power system and +electric motors worked properly. The test confirmed that the data +acquisition system and electric motors worked correctly. Before full +system testing commenced, the generator was plugged into the +power system and the engine was slowly brought up to speed to find +the point where the generator voltage exceeded the battery voltage. +During this testing, it was discovered that the generator had a k V of +27 instead of the expected value of 23. +The test procedure for the ground test rig consists of first charging +and balancing the batteries. The batteries are then installed into the +aircraft, with one battery connector left disconnected until just prior +to the test. The aircraft strut is filled with air, the engine oil level is +checked, and the brakes are checked. The aircraft is rolled out of its +hanger and brought to an open field. The aircraft is then secured with +a chain to the ground. The precharge circuit is then activated, and +batteries are plugged into the main bus. The precharge circuit is then +disabled. Two people then get into the aircraft, a pilot and a data +recorder with a laptop. A third person records a video with a fire +extinguisher on standby. The data recorder confirms that all sensors +are working. Then the engine is started and brought to idle. Once the +engine has reached operating temperature and is ready, the pilot +designates the beginning of testing and brings up the throttle to the +test point. The data recorder then brings up the electric motors to +the respective test points. Finally, after the data have been recorded, +the engine is brought down to idle and then turned off. The engine is +cooled, the main power battery is disconnected, and the data are +exported to the laptop hard drive. +The test matrix was designed to accommodate the 27-k V value +generator. If the voltage of the battery is higher than the output +voltage of the generator, then no power is generated and the +generator spins freely. This amounts to an all-electric configuration +in practice if the generator is outputting below the battery voltage. +The output voltage of the generator is around 111.1-V at the +maximum power turbine shaft speed. The minimum battery voltage +that was deemed safe is around 20% of the useful capacity. +This meant that the cell voltage of the batteries was brought down +to 3.81-V per cell. This brought the 28S battery to a total of 106.7-V, +which meant that the generator would only be operating slightly +above the battery voltage. The maximum voltage of the battery at +4.2-V per cell is 117.6-V. This has practical advantages as it makes it +difficult to overcharge the battery if the generator’s output voltage is +less than the total maximum voltage of the battery. The net effect of +the 27-k V generator was that the generator voltage would only +exceed the battery voltage at full throttle. This meant that the full +engine throttle test point was the only engine test point of interest. +The maximum charging current of the battery specified by the +manufacturer is 85-A and should not be exceeded. Based on this +value and the known resistance values of the batteries, Eq. (2) was +used to determine that a voltage difference of 7-V between the +battery and generator would be needed to exceed the maximum +current rating. However, the largest value that the generator could +output was 111.1-V and the minimum battery voltage was 106.7, +which lead to a maximum difference of 4.3-V, which is well below +7-V. In practice, because the maximum RPM is not normally +achieved under normal operation and there is a voltage drop across +the rectifier the full 111.1-V, generator output will not be achieved. +The test matrix in Table 3 was designed to operate at the full +turboprop throttle position. The test procedure was developed to +capture steady and transient data. The engine would be brought up to +idle and then brought to full throttle. The low ESC throttle value was +intended to be around 30-A per motor based on previous electric +tests, with a medium value of around 80-A, and a high value intended +to be around 150-A per motor. Both electric motors are brought up to +a low value and then held for 5-s, before moving to the next value and +holding it for 5-s as well. The result provided data at different +relatively steady conditions, as well as the transient reaction of the +electromechanical system to changes in the electrical load. \section{Configuration Two} \subsection{Data Acquisition} - \subsection{Experimental Procedure}
\ No newline at end of file + \subsection{Experimental Procedure} diff --git a/missfont.log b/missfont.log deleted file mode 100644 index 8cbaef8..0000000 --- a/missfont.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10 +0,0 @@ -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs5 -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs5 -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs10 -mktextfm rsfs5 diff --git a/results.tex b/results.tex index 9944c1e..4e36c06 100644 --- a/results.tex +++ b/results.tex @@ -7,4 +7,128 @@ \section{Configuration One} -\section{Configuration Two}
\ No newline at end of file +\subsection{Turboprop Engine Data} +Figure 11 shows the power +turbine shaft torque output and rotational speed throughout the test +run. The impact of the power generator can be seen in the mechanical +system data. The turboprop was taken to full throttle and left there +for the duration of the electrical system testing. The turboprop +maintains a specific shaft speed at each throttle setting and so should +not change throughout the run. The decrease in RPM around the 355-s +mark was caused by the load of the generator slowing it down. After +5-s, the engine control unit brought the turboprop back to the intended +speed. However, it can be seen that the engine was now producing +more torque at that same RPM, and thus more power. +The turboprop is rated for a peak shaft speed of 2158-RPM, which +was used in the design of the generator system. The peak value +measured during testing was 2136-RPM. So, the generator was +spinning at 2990-RPM and the design speed for the generator is +3000-RPM, so it was operating nominally. The peak power +produced by the turboprop was about 150-kW. The nominal max +continuous output of the engine is 160-kW, but the engine can +temporarily boost to 180-kW for takeoff. This means that +throughout testing, the maximum power rating of the engine was +never exceeded. The engine performed well, and no otherwise +unexpected phenomenon happened to the engine throughout testing. +\begin{figure}[h] + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{img/test1prop.png} + \caption{\label{test1prop}Turboprop Shaft Torque and Speed} +\end{figure} +\subsection{Electrical System Performance} +Figure 12 shows the +voltage of the central bus and the current flow from the generator and +battery. The ESC throttle positions are labeled in the figure. The +voltage data contain some noise caused by the electrical output of +the generator. The cause of the noise being something else, such as +the vibration of the instrumentation, is unlikely because it only +appears when the generator hits the designed speed and exceeds the +voltage of the battery. The Arduino and probes that measure the +main bus voltage are also not located on the engine, further +increasing the notion that the noise is caused by the generator +creating a noisy DC signal.\\ +Figure 13 shows the total electrical and mechanical power during +the same period as Fig. 12, allowing for direct comparison. The +trends for the voltage data are quite clear. The battery begins at +106.5-V and ends at 105.9-V. Under peak load at around 365-s, the +minimum operating voltage of 100-V is achieved. From left to right, +the changes in ESC throttle position can be seen. Starting from the +left the battery begins charging at 14.4-A. The two ESCs are then +commanded to start at the expected nearly 15-A current draw, but the +left ESC failed to engage properly.\\ +Surprisingly, the medium throttle position on the right ESC was +achieved by drawing ~75-A, but the amount of current from the +generator saw only a minor increase. Instead, the difference was +almost entirely picked up by the battery. This can also be seen in the +power data. There is a small bump in generator power at the ESC +medium point, but the power decreases slightly and is picked up by +the battery. The mechanical data show a drop in rotational speed at +about the same time the medium throttle point was engaged. +Whenever the load was increased, it slowed down the rotational +speed (and thus voltage) of the generator preventing it from picking +up the difference. The generator was slowed down from the near +constant ~2990-RPM to 2904-RPM, which would have reduced the +output voltage by 3-V. Because the output voltage of the generator is +so close to the battery voltage, this decrease in voltage significantly +impacted the current output. The battery responded to the increased +load almost instantly but based on the power/RPM data, it took ~5-s +for the turboprop ECU to adequately react to the increase in +mechanical load.\\ +Once the high ESC throttle position was reached, a significant +amount of current ~150-A total was discharged. The voltage then +dropped by several volts and the amount of current from the +generator increased significantly to its maximum of 39-A. At this +point, around 4-kW was being extracted from the turboprop using +the generator, while about 13-kW of power came from the battery.\\ +Afterward, the second medium throttle position was hit. The total +current was ~40-A compared to the previous 75-A. The reason for +the significant difference may have been an error made by the +operator, who may have missed the target ESC throttle positions. +The power data, however, provides evidence that the total power +output of the propeller was continuously decreasing despite the +operator holding the throttle steady for each position. The simple +explanation may be that the inertia of the propeller and electric +motor is quite large. The electric motor did not require as much +power because it was slowing down instead of speeding up. The final +observation is that the resting current output of the generator +recharging the battery is slightly higher than at the beginning of the +run. This is because the voltage difference between the generator +and battery increased since the battery discharged some of its power. +\begin{figure}[h] + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{img/test1electric.png} + \caption{\label{test1electric}Voltage and Current Data} +\end{figure} +\begin{figure}[h] + \centering + \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{img/test1power.png} + \caption{\label{test1power}Mechanical versus Electrical Power} +\end{figure} +\subsection{Electronic Speed Controller Failure} +After the main test was completed, the left ESC that had failed to +start properly was investigated. The ESC and electric motor had +previously been successfully tested during an all-electric check-out +test run. The electric motor was again tested on battery power to +figure out what was wrong. During this attempt at starting the motor, +the ESC saw a significant in-rush current as shown in Fig. 14. This +caused spontaneous failure and the rupturing of the capacitors inside +the ESC creating a minor fire. The current draw during failure shown +in Fig. 14 is an underestimate. The sensor used to monitor the battery +current maxes out slightly over 500-A, so the instantaneous +maximum values may have been higher than 550-A.\\ +The electrical data during the failure were of particular interest. +During previous testing, an ESC had desoldered its connection point +with its main power wire, which had removed the ESC load from the +main bus. In this case, the ESC shorted, causing a substantial +unexpected load of 46-kW of electrical power on the central bus. +This caused significant strain on the battery, whose maximum rated +current was around 350-A. Had this event occurred during full +system testing, then it could have damaged the turboprop engine or +the battery.\\ +The acquisition rate of the current sensor data is slow compared to +the failure causing steep step changes. However, it appears that as +the failed system was failing, the minimum of the oscillating current +expenditure creeps up from around 20-A (at 423-s) to about 50-A +(428-s). This gave rise to clear recommendations for the handling of +electrical failure modes. +\section{Configuration Two} |